The Campaign for Women’s Suffrage Essay -- American History

The Campaign for Womens Suffrage The campaign developed at that time, as it was thus the rights of women began to improve. Though women were still thought of as second-class citizens, during the 1870s the womens suffrage became a mass movement. Prior to 1870, there were laws that meant that women were unable to keep any of their earnings once they married. That also meant that all her possessions belonged to her husband as well. In 1870, the Married Womens Property Act meant that women were allowed to keep 200 of their earnings. Women such as Caroline Norton are what helped the campaign develop. After a administration found that she was innocent of adultery, Caroline Nortons husband left her and took their children, taking with him her inheritance. Because of the laws at that time, she had no real control over whether she was permitted to see her children, even when nonpareil of her sons died. She fought this, even though British law was against her as she was technically the property of her husband. She battled this until in 1873 the law was changed so that all women could see their children if they were divorced from their husband. It was because laws such as this were changed that others began to believe that it was possible to gain the womens suffrage. Legal steps were then being taken to better the position of women, legal inequalities that faced women were beginning to then balance out. Another cause to why the womens suffrage developed was because of economical reasons. In the late 1800s, women were paid half, and sometimes less(prenominal) than half, what men were in the same jobs. For example, in the 1880s in domestic service,... ... peoples views on them, it was not the moreover factor that gave them the franchise. During the war, there was the Coalition Government and members of this were pro-womens suffrage. In 1917, the Prime Minister Sir Asquith who was anti-womens suffrage resigned . The new PM was Lloyd George, who was actually sympathetic to women receiving the vote. The fact that women had done so much during the war meant that extremely the bill was easier that it was before the war. It would have been even unfair if women had done so much during the war, yet they had still not gotten the vote. But there were men that were less qualified and had the vote. This double standard was also a reason. So though the war effort played a part in them receiving the vote, it was not the only reason why women were able to vote once the war had ended.

Othello’s Female Roles Essay -- Othello essays

Othellos Female Roles Lets look at the roles of the trio lady-characters in the Shakespearean drama Othello. Their roles are not marginal, but are rather vital to the tragedy. In the Introduction to Shakespeares Othello The Harbrace Theatre Edition, John Russell chocolate-brown summarizes the role of the heroine of the play When considered functionally, Desdemonas role may be seen to be every bit as demanding as those of the principals. The fact that she has far fewer oral communication to speak and is on-stage for a much shorter time detracts nothing from the scope of the role, but rather shows that the actress herself can move the audience with the quiet authority of her stage front line and her realization of this girls courage and openness of mind and heart. (xviii) For the women in Othello, life as they would have it was an uphill battle. Susan Snyder in Othello A Modern side reveals some of the hurdles which women had to face in finding a suitable role in society T he pervasive notion of woman as property, prized thusly but more as object than as person, indicates one aspect of a deep-seated sexual pathology in Venice. . . . Iago fans to flames the coals of socially induced unease in Othello, fantasizes on his own about being cuckolded by Othello and Cassio. In an ideology that can value only cloistered, desireless women, any woman who departs from this passivity will relieve oneself intense anxiety. (295) One key role for the heroine of the drama, Desdemona, is to support the general. David Bevington in William Shakespeare Four Tragedies states that the hero equates the young woman he so deeply depends on for happiness, with his fix (226). A different role for the her... ...h, Inc., 1973. Kernan, Alvin. Othello and Introduction. Shakespeare The Tragedies. Ed. Alfred Harbage. Englewood Cliffs, NJ Prentice-Hall Inc., 1964. Shakespeare, William. Othello. In The Electric Shakespeare. Princeton University. 1996. http//www.eiu.edu/multilit/ studyabroad/othello/othello_all.html No line nos. Snyder, Susan. Othello A Modern Perspective. Shakespeare Othello. Eds. Barbara A. Mowat and Paul Werstine. New York Washington Square Press, 1993. Wayne, Valerie. historical Differences Misogyny and Othello. The Matter of Difference Materialist Feminist Criticism of Shakespeare. Ed Valerie Wayne. Ithaca, NY Cornell University Press, 1991. Snyder, Susan. Othello A Modern Perspective. Shakespeare Othello. Eds. Barbara A. Mowat and Paul Werstine. New York Washington Square Press, 1993.

Rain Forest :: essays research papers

Long ago, the Earth had a green belt of pelting forests around its middle that covered almost twelve percentage of the earths land surface.(Miller & Berry 3) Today, the rain forest covers deuce percent of the earths land surface and it is declining rapidly. The following will be a description of the rain forest, factors in its destruction, and if there atomic number 18 any answers to slow or halt the process. "Today, as we enter the last decade of the twentieth century, we have reached a go point we can no longer use the excuse of ignorance."(Hammond 2) citizenry need to try harder to stop rain forest depletion. There are two major areas on earth where rain forests are located. One of these areas is called "The Old World Tropics," which includes Africa and Asia. In Africa, the rain forests are primarily located around the congou tea river. The other area in which rain forests are located is called "The New World Tropics," which contains Central and So uth America. The New World tropics are in lower altitudes as opposed to the Old World tropics, which are at higher altitudes. Rain forests are located around the equator. This location of the rain forests makes them lovesome and humid all year round. There are never cold winters in the rain forests. During winter in the rain forests, people comfortably are able to wear T-shirts and shorts. The rain forest has a rainy season which usually lasts most of the year. "The rain forests of the world are home to more than half(a) of the animal species that live on earth."(CSIRO 1) Many of these creatures are some of the most beautiful and odd creatures in the world, Such as the large rodent Capybara, the Anteater, and galore(postnominal) different colorful exotic birds. There are many beautiful creatures living in our Earths rain forests. Many people are ignorant to the effects of rain forest depletion on our environment, and this ignorance is a major cause in the beginning of th e destruction of the rain forests. "European settlers exploited the rain forests for timber and exonerated them for agricultural purposes."(Parish 4) "The name scrub, which was originally applied to the rain forest by European settlers, became a term for land seen as useless until subject to ax, fire, and plough."(Parish 4) People did not think of the affects on the environment because the little knowledge that was known about the affects was not very widespread.

The People Versus Lady Macbeth :: essays research papers

The People Vs. MacbethThe Macbeth trial broke out in full force today as the entire demesne of Scotland paid close attention to the small town court of Grahacknboroughsly, Scotland. The charges are for abuse of power, abuse of wealth, abuse of friendship and misuse of a regal sparing accent. As the parade of people came into the courthouse, 2/3rds of them were enemies of Macbeth. The social movement to dismiss came early on grounds of permanent death on Macbeths defense team. The motion was quickly dismissed as Macbeth was being quite lively for a dead King. The motion was not helped by the deceased ordering the judge to Lemme free, down the charges and get a haircut. The defense motion was further weakened by the comment, the judge can kiss my giant, royal behind. The trial soon got underway afterwards the court was able to settle Macbeth down. The Peoples witness list started off at the top and worked down. The first was Banquo, as he had been victimized by Macbeth early in t he tale and his testimony, as well as his casket, was getting stale. After hearing the testimony from Banquo, the Macbeth defense brought out their one and only witness, a stable boy, who looked as though he had been threatened with his life. The boys shaky and unseemingly well worded testimony went over very badly on the instrument panel side and the crowds side. The boy brought out the fact that Macbeth was blinded by the possibility of absolute power and wealth, and that he couldnt control his wifes demands until it was too late for the both of them. He also stated that the opportunity wouldnt make up been there if it werent for the kings cowardly sons and their flight from Scotland. This did not go over well for the side of the jury that was strongly pro Duncan (even though they were supposed to be non partisan, it was hard to find a soul who didnt love Duncan so much as to hate Macbeth.) The People now brought out the Weird sisters and their cauldron to make their testimony. As cryptic as it was, it revealed that they had positive(p) Macbeth to kill Duncan, even though it was not hard. The jury was heavily swayed by this revelation, the common thought was that it may not have been Macbeths fault. The sisters may have convinced him.

macbeth :: essays research papers

Shakespeare draws an staggering psychological portrait of a man who became a villain by means of ambition, desire and an imbalance of solid and evil. Macbeth is a play composed of the disintegration of a noble mans world. The play begins by offering the audience Macbeth, a war hero, with a high regard from Duncan, the king of Scotland. By the end of the play Macbeth transforms into a universally despised man without a place in the social community. Shakespeare draws an amazing face of a man made to be a villain by ambition, desire and an imbalance of good and evil.Macbeth, unhappy and unsatisfied with his social position, stird his feelings to sweet sand verbena into the ambition that led him to the murder of Duncan. I have no spurTo prick the sides of my intent, but only Vaulting ambition, which Oerleaps itselfAnd falls on thother (Act 1 sc. 7 pg 41)By using an aside, Shakespeare allows Macbeth to reveal his ambitions. And uses Macbeths ambition to create irony, in that his ambi tion was what brought him to power, yet it also leads him to his tragic downfall. emulation is what allowed Macbeth to become more powerful, and helps him to overcome obstacles and come closer to his final goals. It is this ambition that is the direct cause of the tragic incident of Duncans death.The encounter with the three witches mental process Macbeths innermost imaginative desires, eventually pointing him in the direction of Duncans murder. Art thou not fatal vision, sensibleTo feeling as to good deal? Or art thou butA dagger of the mind, a false creationProceeding from the heat-oppressed brain? (Act 2 sc. 1 pg 53)Here Macbeths imagination precedes his rational thought, he is stolen in the grip of his fantastical imagination. It is as if the dagger is existently pulling him towards his desires to murder Duncan, rather than being persuaded by an actual inner passion for that motive. Shakespeare uses this scene to demonstrate to the audience that Macbeths conscious act of kno wing that his desires are immoral and still acting upon them proves him quite the villain. This symbolisation brings the audience to savor the plays hidden meanings and also allows for leeway in the interpretation of the plot. Macbeths inability to balance the forces of good and evil cause him to reach an insecure state of mind, causing him to make many malicious decisions.But let the fame of things disjoint, both the worlds suffer,

macbeth :: essays research papers

Shakespe be draws an amazing psychological portrait of a universe who became a baddie by means of ambition, desire and an dissymmetry of good and evil. Macbeth is a play composed of the disintegration of a noble mans world. The play begins by offering the audience Macbeth, a war hero, with a high regard from Duncan, the king of Scotland. By the end of the play Macbeth transforms into a universally despised man without a place in the social community. Shakespeare draws an amazing face of a man made to be a villain by ambition, desire and an imbalance of good and evil.Macbeth, unhappy and unsatisfied with his social position, caused his feelings to snowball into the ambition that led him to the murder of Duncan. I have no spurTo prick the sides of my intent, but tho Vaulting ambition, which Oerleaps itselfAnd falls on thother (Act 1 sc. 7 pg 41)By using an aside, Shakespeare allows Macbeth to reveal his ambitions. And uses Macbeths ambition to create irony, in that his ambition was what brought him to power, yet it also leads him to his tragical downfall. Ambition is what allowed Macbeth to become more powerful, and helps him to overcome obstacles and come closer to his final goals. It is this ambition that is the direct cause of the tragic incident of Duncans death.The encounter with the three witches summons Macbeths innermost imaginative desires, eventually pointing him in the direction of Duncans murder. Art thou non fatal vision, sensibleTo feeling as to sight? Or art thou butA dagger of the mind, a false creation consummation from the heat-oppressed brain? (Act 2 sc. 1 pg 53)Here Macbeths imagination precedes his rational thought, he is stolen in the grip of his fantastical imagination. It is as if the dagger is actually puff him towards his desires to murder Duncan, rather than being persuaded by an actual inner passion for that motive. Shakespeare uses this scene to demonstrate to the audience that Macbeths conscious act of knowing that his desires are immoral and still acting upon them proves him quite the villain. This symbolism brings the audience to savor the plays hidden meanings and also allows for leeway in the interpretation of the plot. Macbeths inability to balance the forces of good and evil cause him to reach an insecure state of mind, causing him to make many malicious decisions.But let the fame of things disjoint, both(prenominal) the worlds suffer,

Brunswick Plastics Essay

IntroductionBrunswick Plastics, located in Canada, is an injection molding company. Brunswick Plastics produces 50 different products however, they are non reaching capacity. Production required multiple lying-in hours, and since they werent at capacity, they were finishing a little higher up breakeven. The Division Manager of Brunswick Plastics, Michael metalworker was informed of an opportwholey for his company and must make a decision on whether or not to venture into this opportunity. Mr. smith was informed of a realise of producing 150,000 milk crates. He female genitalia place a weight-lift for the project. However, Mr. Smith isnt confident in the information that he has, and needs answers to best melodic theme the courts of producing the additional units. The cost that he knows are as follows Production Labor$0.14Loading Labor 0.02Crate Materials 1.71Stamp Materials 0.04TOTAL$1.91 per unitStamping shape $5,000 one-time costMr. Smith must make a critical pricing deci sion to have a competitive advantage in the plead process. He has specific questions which answered, will provide a confident grasp on the situation to enable him to make a decision on whether to place the bid and at what price. If the bid is too high, it will most likely be rejected, and the company would lose the opportunity to reach capacity and make a higher(prenominal) profit. But, if the bid is too low it would cause a loss for the company. We will answer Mr. Smiths questions throughout this miscue analysis. top dog 1 establish on your interpretation of Exhibit 3, what is your estimate of the change in PFMOH cost if the factory were to run one extra batch of 150,000 milk crates? Based on the interpretation of Exhibit 3, the linear regression that has the most accurate relationship with Plant Fixed Manufacturing Overhead (PFMOH) is Direct Labor Hours (DLH). Michael Smith calculated that 3,472 plan machine hours would be need, 2,083 runninghours. Using the equation, PFMOH=432 1+(2.85*DLH), and knowing that an operator must be present for each hour of scheduled machine hours (3,472), we can tick off an increase of $14,216.20. We must also factor in depreciation expense (straight line depreciation) of $500 yearbookly ($5,000/10years). Yielding a change of $14,716.20. 4,321+(2.85*3,472)=$14,216.20$14,216.20+$500=$14,716.20Question 2 What is your estimate of the incremental cost per unit for one batch of 150,000 milk crates?The incremental cost per unit is $2.09 and is determined by adding the direct labor and direct materials per unit to the variable overhead. Variable overhead is determined by multiplying the number of machine hours by the rule of thumb for variable overhead, which is stated in the case as $13 per machine hour of running time, and dividing the product by the number of units. ($13*2,083)/150,000=$0.18$1.91+.18=2.09Question 3 What does Exhibit 2 call forth would be a normal price for milk crates for an average job shop? What does this sug gest about the $3.00 price which seems to prevail at the time of the case?The case suggests the price for the crates for an average job shop is150,000*$3.00=$450,000*57%=$256,500Therefore, the direct materials and direct labor is $256,500, $1.71 per unit for the average job shop. At $1.71 per unit, Brunswicks bid price will be much higher at $3.00, which increases the chance that the bid will be rejected. Question 4 What is the strategically relevant cost per unit for milk crates? (for purposes of deciding whether or not the $3.00 food market price is profitable, on an ongoing basis)At $3.00 market price, producing the 150,000 crates would be profitable for Brunswick, because the profit per unit is $0.81.Production Labor$0.14Loading Labor 0.02Crate Materials 1.71Stamp Materials 0.04Variable Overhead 0.18PFMOH 0.10TOTAL COST$2.19 per unit$14,716.20/150,000=$0.10$3.00-$2.19=$0.81At $0.81 a unit for 150,000 units, Brunswicks annual profit would be $121,500.$0.81*150,000=$121,500Questi on 5 What is your advice to Mr. Smith regarding the milk crate opportunity? Be specific and show the calculation supporting your advice. assume the original fixed costs will not be changed, we would recommend that Mr. Smith place the bid for the project. A price of $3.00 is the average current market price however, considering Mr. Smiths need for the contract to alter his contribution margin and to meet capacity, we recommend him summons at $2.90. His opportunity cost of not getting the bid is greater than the $0.10 he will lose if he made a bid at $2.90.The chances are fair for Mr. Smiths bid to be accepted at this price. If it is accepted, Brunswick would increase their profit by $106,500 annually. They would also come much closer to meeting capacity if they placed the bid.$2.90 marketplace Price per unit-$2.19 Total Cost per unit= $0.71*150,000 units=$106,500 of profitQuestion 6 What overall strategic advice do you have for Mr. Smith? What isnt the business doing kick downstai rs, tending(p) the new specialties strategy and good business conditions? Support your answer with relevant cost analysis.Based on details within the case, Mr. Smith is obviously bidding jobs too high and not allowing his plant to increase its volume and obtain fullcapacity. We would advise Mr. Smith to get a better understanding of his costs in order to price his jobs more competitively. Take this project for example, if the incremental cost of this milk crate project is $2.09 and he is certain he can win the bid at $2.90, then that $0.81 of revenue can contribute to 55% of the SG&A costs for the year, from a project that is only 25% of Brunswick Plastics annual sales revenue. Additionally, the case states that a successful bid would give Brunswick a competitive advantage in future orders. Therefore, if they won the other half of the milk crate orders, it would further cover their fixed overhead and not hinder the capacity requirements of the other products Brunswick produces. $0. 81*150,000=$121,500/$220,000=.55 or 55%ConclusionConsidering the calculations we have made, we recommend that Michael Smith place a bid on behalf of Brunswick Plastics for the 150,000 milk crate project at $2.90. It will be wise for Mr. Smith to come in at the lowest market price to dramatically increase the chances of his bid being accepted. Brunswick needs to win this bid so that they may be able to better their contribution margin and come closer to meeting capacity. A win will also increase profit, so they are much higher above breakeven. This could lead to further business with the Dairy Counsel as well.

How and why does Iago convince Othello of Desdmona’s infidelity?

Shakespeare is often referred to as the greatest playwright that always lived. His comedies have make numerous laugh, his tragedies servicemany have cried over and romances that have touched millions. Shakespeares writing although hundreds of years old are always relevant to our lives because that is what they are virtually, life. Shakespeare deals with all aspects of human spirit and flaws. He greatly exaggerates a particular flaw in separately of his tragic heroes. This flaw brings ab egress their d acceptfall.In the course of one conversation Iago convinces a man who loves his wife completely that she is in situation having an affair with one of his nigh trusted subjects without using one shred of proof or any authorized rear. This is a man who can make the nearly innocent of people guilty and the most loved, hated. He uses many tactics to persuade Othello that Desdemona is cheating on him with Cassio, the reason, is revenge. Iago is a very cunning and manipulative man. He is also often irrational and erratic. He provide go to any convey to get what he wants and in this case he doesnt mind ruining three people in the process.At the beginning of the play we hear of Iagos rage at the fact that Cassio was made lieutenant preferably of him. Iago feels that he was the better candidate and deserves the position. Iago isnt hard pushed to find a way of getting revenge. Othello often says that without Desdemona he would be in chaos, But I do love thee and when I love thee not, chaos is come again. Iago uses this, because he wants to create chaos, which is one of the major themes of the play. Other major themes accommodate relationships, jealousy, love and deceit.Luck provides him with the opportunity to stage an affair mingled with Cassio and Desdemona, driving Othello to insanity and resulting in the death of Desdemona and Othello. Iago becomes very jealous of Othello because of his position in the Venetian Army. He is also sexually attracted to Desd emona n ever sotheless that is not a real reason for hating Othello, his mind concocts stories which he believes are true and thus making himself phone acceptable to take revenge on Othello by sleeping with his wife. Iago believes that Othello has slept with his wife Emilia, leapt into his seat, he wants revenge for this too, not out of absolute lust.He wants to sleep with Desdemona for revenge not just for pleasure. He push throughs to be sexually frustrated as he also presumes that Cassio has also slept with Emilia, I fear Cassio with me nightcap too. Throughout the play he often refers to sex as lustful and no issue to do with love. This is emphasised in his disbelief that Othello and Desdemonas relationship is based on love. Through this we have to consider the reasons wherefore he feels this way. Can he not love some(prenominal)one? He finds it easy enough to kill his make wife at the end of the play, yet is constantly reaffirming his love for Othello.We jockey he uses this as a tactic for Othello to gain faith in Iago, alone could on that point be much? This plot is an obsession for Iago, his jealousy rules him. Could this mission be his only love? To understand how Iago convinces Othello that Desdemona is having an affair with Cassio we moldiness look at the events beforehand which Iago directs to his stimulate advantage. It starts when Cassio and Desdemona greet each separate Iago forms the plan that Cassio will be target. Cassio and Desdemona are friendly to each other and Iago can see how this could appear to be more than just friendship.Didst thou not see her paddle with the palm of his hand? In Elizabethan times this was deemed as highly sketch and personal, this would have been an activity that only a couple would engage in. By claiming that Cassio was stroking Desdemonas hand, he is suggesting that they are a couple or intimate with each other. Iago sees the opportunity and uses his knowledge of Cassio to get him into a fight with Roderigo. Iago knows that this will outrage Othello and Cassio will want to redeem himself. Iago has planted the component part for Cassio to plead with Desdemona so that she will speak to Othello on Cassios behalf.Iago knows that Desdemona will take up Cassios plight for she is a unattackable person. I will beseech the virtuous Desdemona to undertake for me. Desdemona doesnt realise that Iago is abusing her goodwill so that it will bring about her own downfall. Othello doesnt see it as strange that Desdemona is keep uping Cassio for he knows what type of person she is. It is Iago that uses this as a institution for an affair between Cassio and Desdemona. Iago suck ins many of the main characters. He only gets away with this because they trust him and this protects him from any questioning. His cunning means that the events can occur, building the play.He uses this to his own benefit, talking Cassio into pleading with Desdemona and inducing Othello to believe that Desdemona is having an affair. Throughout the play Iago is described as an honest man, which to the audience seems ironic because really everything the man says they know to be a lie. Desdemona describes as, o thats an honest fellow, Othello thinks This fellows of exceeding honest, and Cassio too sees him as honest, honest Iago. It surprises the audience that the characters are so blind to Iagos faults solely then we must understand that he has never done anything that could make them doubt him.He is an idyllic picture, a man who is devoted and trustworthy, they could never imagine that he is receptive of deceit. Iagos effectiveness at noticing innocent situations and making them look suspect is another way in which he gets Othello to believe in Desdemonas unfaithfulness. When Othello depression enters the room at the start of Act III Scene III, Cassio hurriedly leaves the room by and by verbalize with Desdemona. Cassio does this completely innocently, he leaves because he doesnt want to annoy Othello any more than he has already, he feels disgraced and is ashamed, and he cannot face Othello.Iago successfully twists this situation- That he would steal away so guilty like- seeing you coming. Iago explains Cassios guilt as that he has been sleeping with Desdemona. Of course the reader knows that is not true, but to Othello, the way that he hurries away, one time pointed out to him by Iago, does look very suspicious. This is even more compound in Othellos mind when immediately after(prenominal)wards Desdemona starts defending Cassio and pesters Othello to re-instate him. This combined with Iagos perverting of the situation looks very abnormal to Othello.Iago convinces Othello that Desdemona is sleeping with Cassio by very through very compute steps. In each instance he builds on Othellos insecurities and his trust in him. He is successful in commanding the lack of evidence to his own advantage. Othello trusts Iago as he sees him as a loyal subject. Iago starts by questioning Cassio and Othellos relationship. He does this by asking suggestive questions, Did Michael Cassio, when you wooed my lady know of your love? By doing this he is making Othello consider their past and what effect it could have on the present.When Othello questions him further he refuses to answer a question directly. Honest my superior? By doing this it is as if he is trying to protect Othello, by keeping something from him. This will make Othello want to know the true statement even more as it is human nature to be curious after all we all want to know details especially if you know that really you shouldnt hear it. For Othello to believe in what Iago is about to tell him Othello must trust him. Iago needs to know that his news will not be instantly dismissed, he does this by the affirmation of his love. My lord you know I love you.This is his basis, if you genuinely trust individual you believe in what they tell you. Othello and Iago had fought together in wars a nd it is most likely that they had often held each others lives in their hands. So Othello would never believe that Iago would turn against him so suddenly, especially as for the large majority of the play, Iago looks to be nothing more than a completely loyal servant to Othello. He refuses to tell Othello what hes thinking. Utter my musical themes? Why say they are vile and false? He doesnt want to say anything bad or untrue, after all he is Othellos loyal servant and would not want to hurt him.He also doesnt want to leave himself out for blame by acting this way he can say that Othello pressurised the information out of him even when he wasnt sure it was true. Iago is good at planting ideas. O beware my lord of jealousy. Iago suggests what Othello should be thinking and feeling. Even if Othello wasnt previously jealous because maybe he didnt believe fully, now Iago has told him exactly what he should be feeling. By specimen Othello has in fact put it in his utmost mind. Iago plays on the fact that Othello is not of Venetian society.He explains that there are differences in social attitudes. In Venice they do not let God see the pranks they have not shown their husbands. Othello cannot question this as he is from a different background and already feels compromised. Although when in Venice, he appears to be a strong-minded character, proves to have low self-esteem, this low opinion of himself may stem from being racially self-conscious. But some may argue that race would not have been an issue, it is more to do with the fact that he comes from a different society, an outsider who knows little of how their expectations.Although no mention is ever made of it, Othello views himself as different, which he is, from the rest of Venetian society. In was shock to everyone and probably even Othello that one of the most eligible women in Venice has fallen in love with him. So when Iago starts telling Othello of a relationship between Cassio and his wife, the rum ours about Desdemona and the fact that she had refused men of higher status than Othello, Not to affect many proposed matches of her own clime, complexion and degree he believes it may be true.Also he reminds Othello of what her father said when he first found out about Desdemona mean to marry Othello without his consent- Look to her Moor, if thou hast eyes to see She has deceived her father and may thee. To which Othello replies My life upon her faith. Much of Othello deals with pride and reputation, for Othello now to hear about Desdemonas unfaithfulness, after he replied so convincingly that he trusts her completely, would certainly start to worry him. After all, if what Iago had been telling Othello was true, then Othello had been made to look a complete fool by Desdemona in a very short period of time.Iago often uses very crude language and often refers to animal imagery. He belittles Othello and Desdemonas relationship, regarding it in its most instinctive form, a sexual rel ationship, youll have your daughter covered with a Barbary horse Othello however approaches it as serious and loving relationship, Nor to comply with heat the teenaged affects in me defunct and proper satisfaction But to be free and bounteous to her mind. That is why the audience is particularly amazed that Othello resorts to animalistic images too. Othello refers to Desdemona as penniless, a hawk that cannot be tamed.He also refers to himself as a toad this is a far cry from the man who stood in front of the Duke and other important men of Venice declaring his love. Shakespeare uses this technique to show us that Othello has lost his confidence and is no longer self-assured. As he becomes more and more angry his condition through his speech begins to slip, no longer does he speak in long flowing sentences but now in exclamations, which hints at his loss of talent to loose his temper. He is also speaking in a similar way to Iago, This may symbolise that he has come to think i n the kindred manner.These images show us the depth of Othellos jealousy, the woman he loved he now disparage. When Othello begins to fall into the trap that Iago has set out, there is only one thing that would convince him completely. The principal method that Iago uses to convince Othello of Desdemonas infidelity is by using one of Othellos most treasured possessions and telling Othello that his wife, Desdemona has given it away to her lover, Cassio. The handkerchief was the first gift he gave to Desdemona, so it possesses enormous sentimental value to Othello. Finding out that Desdemona has given it away shows her as inimical.It must have hurt and furious him, after all the woman he loves and is married to has given away without a care for him, would almost certainly anger him, for in Othellos mind she has thought the handkerchief to be a meaningless piece of cloth. Iago tells Othello that he saw Cassio wiping his mouth with it, much like a rag. I know not that but such a hand kerchief- I am sure it was your wifes- did I today. See Cassio wipe his beard with. This enough proof for Othello to be convinced that Iago is telling the truth and for him to kill both Desdemona and Cassio.Within these three says let me hear thee say that Cassios not alive. And, I will withdraw to furnish me with some swift means of death for the fair devil. The fair devil refers to Desdemona. This oxymoron suggests that Othello save sees her as divine and yet he has lost his faith in her. Of course, the main way Iago fools Othello is by pure bunch. That luck being that a lot of the things that Cassio and Desdemona say and do fall right into the trap and further convince Othello of a relationship between the two of them. When he first sees them together and Cassio scurries away, Iago jumps on the opportunity.Another example of this is found further on in the play when by controlling the circumstances Iago gets Cassio to talk disparagingly about Bianca, while Othello thinks the conversation is about Desdemona. The luck of this situation is gargantuan one mention of the name Bianca and Othello would realise that Cassio was really speaking about her, fortuitously for Iago, Cassio does not mention Biancas name once in the entire conversation. Shakespeare often presents the true feelings of the characters through soliloquies.Through Iagos soliloquy we see that Iago is an self-seeker and amoral. The Moor already changes with my poison This line shows that Iagos plan is having the desired effect. Other characters in Shakespeares plays have shown conscience to the fact that they are doing wrong, and have felt some remorse, we can see this in Macbeths soliloquy, First, as I am his kinsman and his subject, strong both against the deed then, as his host, who should against his murderer shut the door, not bear the lingua myself. But Iago shows no wavering, he is convinced that this is the right thing to do, Burn like the mines of sulphur, he wants Othello to fal l from grace as revenge for instating Cassio over him.It is most disconcerting to think that Iago almost takes pleasure from Othellos torment, Nor all the drowsy syrup of the world, shall medicine thee to that sweet sleep which thou owdst yesterday. Othello is the typical tragic hero that Shakespeare integrate in many of his works, a man who sets out to do his very best, but through one flaw he is bought down. This has an enormous effect on the audience. The audience know that he is a good man, but circumstances are working against him, leaving the audience frustrated at his own senselessness for not realising and making the amendments.Often as the audience we feel like screaming at him for being so blind to the facts, we are drained of our emotions. Shakespeare mean this he used the ancient Greek method of Catharsis. Shakespeare had to make the main character likeable enough for the audience to warm to him and suffer his pain, but still make sure that in the end his tragic flaw shone through. Othellos main flaw is his jealousy. Othellos other flaws are pride and gullibility. Iago however can not be blamed for everything he did not murder Desdemona nor kill Othello.The characters must have a motive of their own and therefore is there not a basis for Othello to be pushed into murdering his wife? Many would say that by removing Iago the couple would live happily ever after, but mustnt there be a reason for why Othello was pushed so readily into murder. Othello acts like a confident man when in Venice, he has the support of his wife and men like Cassio. Remove the safety of that support and you would find a man alone in a foreign country which has different values and expectations, maybe in reality Othello knew that he could not belong in Venetian society and not with Desdemona.Our view of Othello progresses as the play develops. The first mention of Othello is by Iago he presents him to the audience as someone with poor judgement as he has promoted the wrong person and through repellent sexual images, as someone grotesque. Yet others, like the Duke see Othello as valiant From the beginning Othello is authoritative and confident, but without the knowledge that Desdemona is faithful to him, he collapses. Othellos lack of judgement is shown when he lets suspicion of Desdemona having an affair with Cassio take over his mind, fish filet all rational thought.He asks the opinion of Emilia (Desdemonas handmaid and Iagos wife) You have seen nothing then? Even though she replied Nor ever heard, nor ever did suspect he does not believe her because his poisoned mind cant accept it. This is an issue that reigned in the Elizabethan times, people of his social status could not loose their power, it disrupted the hierarchy and made those below them feel uneasy. Society was very structured and those at the top would have a ripple effect on everyone below. We also notice in Shakespeares plays that the tragic hero is always a man of position, forces , noble men or army officials.This is so that they have a position to fall from, there would be no point in having an ordinary man in a story like this, the tragic hero is meant to be almost perfect, but not quite. This can be linked to the tragic hero King Lear he is far too trusting and divides his country between his two punic daughters, which inevitably leads to his death. Through King Lear Shakespeare looks at madness and through the character of Othello he shows us how the people we surround ourselves with can create this.In the play, King Lear, King Lear has to deal with betrayal by his daughters in a similar way to which Othello is betrayed by his trusted friend, Iago and he believes his wife too. Like Othello Lear looks for justice instead of the revenge that Iago seeks. It shall be done I will arraign them straight. Come, sit thou here most learned justicer. (King Lear, Act 3 scene 6) it indicates that a desire of order and justice is starting to replace the chaos and tho ughts of savage revenge in Lears mind it marks the start of his journey away from insanity.This insanity is similar to what Iago creates in Othello, he creates jealousy and through that chaos. All of the main themes are present in Act III Scene III. The fight of good against evil is represented in Othellos struggle with Iago. The theme of chaos verses order is shown through Othellos gradual recede in anguish. Othellos overpowering jealousy blinding him from the truth and Iagos revenge which bring about the chaos and evil. Despite wanting to kill his wife Othellos love for her still remains.In his soliloquy before killing Desdemona he states his love for her, however Othello thinks murder is the only punishment worthy of betrayal yet she must die, else shell betray more men. Othellos jealousy is now at peak level, he still cant show rational thought and is blind about the true horror he is about to do. Even when he speaks to her and she denies ever giving Cassio the handkerchief he d oesnt believe her, Yes, presently therefore confess thee freely of thy sin for to deny each article with oath cannot remove nor repress the strong conception that I do groan withal.Thou art to die. It is ironic that Othello believes every lie that Iago fed him and yet cannot believe a exclusive truth that the woman he loves tells him. I never did offend you in my life never lovd Cassio but with such general warranty of heaven as I might love I never gave him token. After killing his bride he is brought out of his trance and realises the mistakes he has made. Iagos scheme is brought out into the open. Emilia brings out the scheme when the truth is told about the true goings on.At this point in the play Othellos heroic qualities are put on show for the audience once more. Speak of me as I am nothing extenuate, nor set down aught in malice then, must you speak of one that lovd not wisely but too well of one not easily jealous, but, being wrought, perplexd in the extreme. Having re alised the horror of the situation he takes full blame for his actions and commits suicide and lies next to his beloved bride to die.Iago is a man who is out for his own gain, and there are many people in our society who are like him. He is a character who knows how to direct circumstances to his own purpose, unfortunately the other character do not see this and are spun into his web of lies. By luck and tactics like planting ideas and evidence he is able to persuade Othello into thinking that Desdemona is having an affair and get his revenge. Through this catharsis we realise that in Iago Shakespeare has created that crowning(prenominal) embodiment of evil and malice.

Nando`S Marketing Mix Essay

1.1(1) The embody varience communicate is a listing of allowable expenses compared with the positive expenses incurred. (2) The actual unit cost is the cost of producing a single harvest-tides or unit measure of output or swear out. The budget unit cost is a plan or forecast, of a single unit measure of output or helping. The conclusion is that the cost of goods and services is more expensive. (3) The cost variable report can assist you to select the right cost by giving you the list of all the expenses and allowing you to choose which expenses to cut that may be less important. e.g the cost varience report may have electricity bill, goods and office refreshments. The list may help you decide which cost should be cut, in this case it would most credibly be the office refreshments. 1.2(1) the union is currently running at a loss R3000.00 loss. (2) Cash paid for operations costs (3) The business runs a attraction on operations so it needs a lot of financing on that department. (4) Inventory is the raw material and products held in stock by a company in anticipation of future sales. (5) The difference between the cash flow statement and the income statement is that, the reach in the income statement is non the said(prenominal) as cash. Some of the items contributing to the profit have not yet been turned to cash and cannot be used to pay short-term debt. The cash-flow statement indicates whether the company is could pay all its debts for the year. It shows whether the company has enough cash flowing in to cover the required outflow. 1.3(1) Cash paid for inventory Cash paid for some other operations-Cash paid for insurance-Cash paid for selling(2) Postpone spending. Spending is postponed to some date in the future when the need to cut costs is not as urgent. Plug leaks. One of the tasks of the first-line managers is to find out where expenses are leaking through the controls, and then plug them up.Question 2Product or service, that is, the product u niverse developed and produced or the service being offered. In developing the product/service strategy the organization should consider the following (1) The choice of service/product and the scope of the product/service range. If it is possible for an insurance company to offer a range of products in a specific category. (2) The feature of the product/service, such(prenominal) as design, style, size, colour and functionality.(3) The packaging of the product. Packaging serves two purposes, namely promoting and protecting the product. Packaging design can contribute to increased sales and is a springy part of the marketing strategy. (4) The branding of the product. Branding refers to the use of a brand name, term, symbol or design to distinguish the product from all other products. (5) Which products volition be purchased or manufactured by the organization. (6) Service(s) to be offered to the customers and at what price. Price set apartting and set strategy.the price that a cus tomer pays for a product or service should be comparable to the value of the customer or the benefits received by the customer from using the product or service.(1) Price settingThe service of the product provider decides on the most appropriate price for the service/product. The price must cover the total cost plus some profit margin. (2) Pricing strategyApart from taking cost into consideration when determining the price, you should also consider the market characteristics and the organisations current marketing strategy. These determine strategies are found in the business environment and take the factors following into consideration Penetration pricing. Services or products are priced below the usual long-term market price in order to gain market acceptance more rapidly or to increase existing market share. -Skimming pricing.Prices of services or products are initially set at higher levels for a limited period of time and then reduced to more competitive levels. -Follow-the-pr icing-leader. The price is set by a particular competitor are used as the guidelines for setting a price for a service or product. -Variable pricing. Even thore a uniform price is advised, this pricing system allows you to offer price concessions selected customers for a variety of reasons. Flexible strategy. This takes into consideration special market conditions and competitors pricing practices.Promotion strategyto promote the organization and its services, the organization has to communicate with the existing customers and the potential customers. The purpose of marketing communication is as follows (1) To inform the customers about the service and products (2) To persuade the customers to make use of such services and purchase the products or services. (3) To remind the customers to continue purchasing the products or services. The promotion mix consists of 5 elements(1) denote is paid-for communication related to the service, product or idea in different forms of media, namel y the print nedia, radio, television, and outdoor billboards. (2) Personal selling is the oral presentation of development about a service, product or idea to one or more potential customers. (3) Publicity is free communication to influence consumers through the promotion media such as the press, radio and television. (4) Sales promotion complements the advertisng, personal selling and publicity to transmit the message to the potential consumers through the use of handouts, free samples and promotional gifts. (5) In direct marketing communication is aimed directly at the target market to elicit a response. Question 31)2) Gannt charts are used to break the project master schedule and detailed task schedules. It can only be drawn up after work breakdown structure outline has been completed as the work packages are used for the scheduling.

Why Was Slavery Abolished in 1833?

Why was hard workerry abolished in 1833? The Slavery Abolition Act of 1833 was the culmination of the utilize effort of a great many an(prenominal) people and marked the end of slave averership in British colonies. In order to assess and commiserate the relative influences on the passing of this act we can break them down into three broad categories social, economic and political. In 1833 Britain was a country that prided itself on its forwards thinking and enlightened nature. With the onset of the industrial revolution, modernisation was at the forefront of peoples minds and had made thraldom seem to many, a barbaric throwback to other age.This is due(p) in part to an influx of people moving into the cities which increased the amount of middle class non conformists such as the Quakers or Methodists. This is very important as the Great Reform Act of 1832 meant that most of the middle classes now had the right to vote. This added a great deal of political weight to the public voice which could simply then be used to help get slavery abolished. Another social aspect that influenced whether the slave trade was abolished was the greatly increased numbers of slaves who were reborn to Christianity, but also the amount of slaves who were born Christian.Much of this was thanks to the Methodist missionaries of the time who travelled to British colonies to spread the word of God amoung the slaves. This posed an awkward virtuous question to the leaders of a devoutly Christian Britain, as they could not deny that it was against their own religion to enslave a fellow Christian, thus providing another reason for the immediate abolition of slavery. Social issues amongst the slaves themselves also provided fuel for the abolition arugment. There was growing unrest among the slave population, due to the incorrect assumption among many that the 1807 Slave Trade Act would mean that they would be freed.This unrest had maifested itself in three major rebellions between 1 807 and 1833 in Barbados, Demerara and Jamaica. Each rebellion had its own parituclar impact. For example the rebellion in Barbados set a precedent among slaves that they could and would fight for their independence, even in a very well established British colony. As well as this, the rebellion in Demerara and the subsequent abhorrent retaliation by the white slave owners outraged many British people, no doubt made them even more human to the slaves cause and provided evidence to propogate the immorality of slavery.Finally, the largest rebellion of the three consisting of over 60,000 slaves actually led to a tonus amongst slave owners that they were ready to accept abolition due to the fear and risk now associated with maintaining their plantations. Even more directly than this, as a result of what happened in Jamaica,parliament actively began looking for ways to end slavery which Is obviously an extremely imporant aspect of why it was indeed abolished. Along with the social issu es, and in some cases about tied in to them are the economic explanations for the abolition of slavery.Chief among these reasons was the dawning realisation that slave produced sugar was becoming less and less economically viable. This was shown by illustrious economist Adam smith who explained to the public that due to the adoption of free trade which took away the extortianate import duties on non slave produced sugar, slave produced sugar was no longer cheaper. This meant that the plantation owners and other pro-slavery lobbyists had lost their strongest argument.Furthermore, while this was happening British industry was rapidly moving forward and the country was no longer restricted on the sugar trade. Due to this, many of the people who had financial ties with the slave trade had a way to re-invest their money, in many cases into the lucrative trade of housebuilding in the ever expanding cities. As such many people lost their main cause for supporting slavery, or at least w ere no longer hale to support it for fear of losing their income. Finally, we can look at the direct political influences on the abolition of slavery.The anti-slavery lobby which had gained such support leading up to the aboltion of the slave trade in 1807 had initially scaled down much of their activity as it was believed that the slave trade would slowly die out without the supply of invigorated slaves being transported from Africa. However once it became clear that many slave owners were simply taking steps to ensure they maintained the levels of slaves at their disposal, by means of break-dance healthcare and living conditions or even encouraging their slaves to ro-create, they began to re-assemble and re-organzie themselves and set about gathering more evidence to put forward to parliament. This conviniently coincided with the changing political coordinate at the time which as I mentioned earlier had increased the number of non conformists with the right to vote dramaticall y. In turn the evidence gathered in the colonies reached the sympathetic ears of people like the Methodists and Quakers, who unlike in 1807 had the right to vote.This combined with the fact that at the time that potential difference members of parliament were forced to declare their stand halt on slavery meant that the will of the people now had an effective way to influence the politicians who could affect a change in the law. In conclusion, its hard to guess which one factor may have had the greatest impact on slavery eventually being abolished in 1833. Certainly, you could argue that the dwindling profit potential of slave produced sugar must have been a very important factor, but would that of been enough on its own to prompt parliament to abolish slavery?I would argue that a combination of the modern enlightened way of thinking amongst the British people coupled with their new found political freedom was absolutely vital to the cause. It provided the voice which could not be ignored by any man in power and coupled with the testament of Adam Smith provided a seemingly irrefutable argument to parliament which gave them no choice but to pass the Slavery Abolition Act. Abolition then, was the result of not a single argument, but the new world and social values with its vastly different Social, Economic and Political influences than in times past.

Analysis of the poem Essay

The poem Originally by Carol Ann Duffy talks rough the issue of cultivation identity. The poem talks about change, memories, and anxiety which falls when moving. This is conveyed through the experiences of a young girl in the poem who is reluctant to leave what she knows behind. This is do apparent through the theme of memory and the continual change of setting. The title Originally sets the tone for the poem as there change needs to occur for there to be an original.This choice of diction allows for an expectation for what the journey will be about, while the ambiguity of the poem is written in such a way that individualal experiences offer be projected upon the protagonist. The aspect of the poem through tone however creates a bias towards negative emotions and experiences receivable to the despondent tone end-to-end the first two stanzas. This atmosphere of loss is aided through the substance abuse of negative emotive diction such as bawling and resigned.By showing that the protagonists blood brothers are crying, Duffy illustrates how hard this is for them as crying is usually only brought on by major or sad events and loss, resigned is used to show how she has accepted her fate, but it doesnt mean she likes it. This association of emotions with the diction allows for empathy to occur towards the protagonist and her unsure feelings about her emigration. The theme of ethnic identity is used in the poem in order to instil a sense of not belonging.This feeling of unease and unhappiness is introduced through the use of bawling as this change from the place where they are comfortable and belong to the new one is both painful and confusing for them. The use of italics however, in the repeating of Home as well as the capitalisation of it, emphasises its importance to them and their desire to return to it. The use of a blind toy by Duffy can be used as a metaphor towards the protagonists new life, where, although the toy is blind, it still has eyes.The foreshadowing could be that when the protagonist moves she will be blinded by everything which is new so that she doesnt become overwhelmed by it. She will continue to be blind to the beauty of her new home so long as she is yearning for her old one. However, once she is ready her sight will return and she will start to forget her cultural identity. At the time, the girl doesnt necessitate this however, so she is clinging onto a toy to maintain her memories of home. Additionally, a toy is associated with childhood, so the clinging onto it may represent how she doesnt want to grow up and leave her solace behind.By saying in the second stanza that all childhood is emigration, Duffy allows for immediate relation to the protagonists situation. This is due to the journey of growing up to adulthood which is a worldwide experience, as well as referring to physical emigration of moving from one place to another. Improtantly however, the emigration of childhood is all made without the acce ptance of the person moving, they cannot stop growing older, and parents make the ultimate decisions. This unease and the inability to understand the need to move is reinforced by the location of her new home where no one you know stays. This introduces the tone of isolation which is reinforced by having the wrong accent, and shouting words you dont understand which immediately marks a person as being from a different area, even though the move could obtain been within the same country of city, the accent and slang changes. The submission of big boys shows that she is intimidated by people from the area who are older and bigger as she doesnt know how they will react, this is reinforced by the initial rhyme present through the repetition of the hard d, continuing the feeling of intimidation which the protagonist encounters.A continuation of the alliteration in sibilance, seeing your brother swallow a slug, feel only a skelf of shame, provides an insight that the protagonist is fa irly proud of her brothers for adapting so well to the environment, which is then applied to herself in a continuation of sibilance in combination with a simile in that she remembers (her) tongue shedding its skin like a snake, my voice in the schoolroom sounding just like the rest. This shows that she is also now adapting to her environment, reinforced by the fact that a shed skin is natural for a snake, and this adaptation is normal, although slightly unwanted. The last stanzas change in tone shows how the protagonist has changed with age. This allows for a time skip to take place into a time when she is more come on and able to reflect upon the journey easily, although with some regret. This is expressed through rhetorical questions beginning with the use of Do I only think, in line 20, which builds up an atmosphere of longing and wistfulness.There is also a tone of uncertainty in there, as she doesnt know if she had remained in the place if the feelings of belonging would have remained, which is why she only questions and doesnt outright believe that staying would have been the best option for her. The rhyming of the words first space and right place reinforces the interrogative sentence she feels about her cultural identity. The continued doubt of the protagonists cultural identity which occurs in lines 23 and 24, illustrates how she will continue to try and find the answers throughout her life as she will never be truly certain of who she is, creating a sense of not belonging.Although emigration is a hard thing to experience, Duffy illustrates that try to maintain a cultural identity through such a process may cause problems later. The continued rejection of the new culture illustrates how much of an outsider it makes the protagonist feel later in life, which could have been avoided if it had been readily embraced. The place which she originates from will always have a draw, however, the acceptance of a new culture viewed as a new part of a personal culture, would be much easier to accept than a replacement to the old one.

Impact on Local Community and Environment

2.Impact on topical anaesthetic Community and Environment2.1 Image and RegenerationEnvironmentally Sustainable pleader should be implemented from the early phases of lawsuit planning. Alternatively of concentrating on h hoarying green installations and equipment, the construct of sustainability should be implemented in the full determination qualification procedure. Therefore holding an environmentally sustainable import should be set apart of the purposes and aims. Mega events ar extremely concerned about this, as undertaking environmental issues atomic number 18 important in winning a command. This inaugural gave London success in winning their command and the chance to host the Olympic games in 2012. In their command study London promised that 20 per cent of the Olympic Park energy comes from sustainable agencies. Besides obtaining the games Londons Environmentally sustainable steerage gave the chance for regeneration of tocopherol London. Beside seting two thousand nati ve trees and 300,000 wetland workss and reconstructing five stat mis of the River Lea, new locales and attractive forces were constructed together with new places, schools and concerns. This increased touristry in East London therefore helped in making a better image non however for east London but besides to the full metropolis. However nigh aims such as edifice wind turbines were non carried out and some undertakings were merely done in order to pull tourers instead than for sustainability.Conveyance and Noise contaminantEnvironmentally Sustainable Management is extremely important even more so in modern twenty-four hours, as local councils have the post to prohibit an event from go oning, if they see that the event is making devastation and doing lives harder on locals. When be aftering an event the event director must maintain in head that the bulk of pollution and breaks created during an event, come from transit to and from the event. DEFRA ( 2002 ) illust set upd that noi se ailments to Environmental Health Officers have drastically increased everyplace the last 20 old ages, peculiarly for route occupation. Events such as festivals ar supplying transit from different metropoliss to the location and encouraging visitants to utilize public transit where necessary. During mega events such as the Olympic games public transit should be efficient for the wont of people in order to advance the usage of public transit over unavowed transit and and then cut downing congestion. During the London Olympics in over 100 million journeys were made utilizing the belowground tubing. Having scheduled transit to an event pass on make a flow in the figure of visitants geting during a short period therefore this will let controlling of the visitants and cut downing traffic break, congestion and noise pollution at the location. The traffic Management Plan for Isle of White 2013 established a program for roads and paths from the ferry terminuss are free from congest ion, thereby understating the impact of Festival related vehicular traffic on the route network and hence minimising the consequence on locals. Transportation is non merely utilize by visitants, but besides by round who arrive at events location yearss prior to the event. During festivals the figure of staff can make over 1,000 people. In 2010 T in the park provided staff with bikes, which were used at the site location during the set up, in order to cut down the usage of autos. This is done as portion of the understanding with Julies Bicycle in 2008 in order to cut C emanations by 40 % by 2020, which is portion of the Scots Parliaments committedness. However this is non plenty, and efficient transit to staff should be organized so that the use of private autos to take on to the location is reduced. Eurovision melody Contest in Malmo in 2013 decided to utilize ISO 20121 and provided free public transit to all delegates and the imperativeness. Visitors were besides encouraged to do usage of the train to beat to the sphere in order to cut down emanations. Noise Pollution is another factor that has to be taken into consideration for event direction. In 2013, flagstone Factory Festival at The Plough in Hutton was threatened by Brentwood Borough Council s licensing officers due to the impact of noise on occupants. There is non much an event organizer can make to minimise noise pollution on neighbouring occupants nevertheless the Control of Noise at Work Regulations 2005 provides limitations to this issue and besides states that staff should be protected from loud noises.3.Reducing Costss3.1FacilitiesEvent directors are cognizant that by implementing Environmentally Sustainable direction they are besides cutting costs, particularly in events that occur repeatedly and desire to be in the concern for the long tally. Events generate considerable sum of waste that doesnt merely have electronegative impacts on the environment, but it is besides dearly-won to the org anizers. In 1996 directing waste to landfill cost ?7 a metric ton and a lower rate of ?2 for inactive waste nevertheless in 2013 this increased to ?72 a metric ton which made organizers more cognizant of the waste an event generates. Melvin Benn caput of Festival Republic acknowledges that bettering environmental public presentation no longer merely makes environmental sense, it makes economic sense every bit dear(p) . Events administrations are coming up with enterprises to cut down waste and have a greener event. Glastonbury sets 15, 000 bins around the site, which are clearly labeled for cycle stuff and non recycle stuff where in 2012 trash was separated and 49 % of this was recycled. Harmonizing to the Glastonbury web site, In order to dispose of all the waste that is left behind the Festival used to pay ?780,000, nevertheless with the aid of voluntaries and initiatives the sum of money that is saved from waste aggregation is donated to charity. Assorted inducements are bein g placed in order to acquire the visitant to be cognizant of the environment and cut downing waste and hence cut downing costs. Festivals have set up the cup recycling enterprise where clients are rewarded with 10p ( depending on the event ) for every cup that is returned. Similarly at Christmas markets selling mulled vino and other gay drinks clients pay a scant(p) sum excess as sedimentation for their cups, which they will acquire back if the cups are returned. Nevertheless some visitants are non concerned about go forthing bedding around and farther instruction should be provided to emphasize the importance of these enterprises. Another publicity by Glastonbury is A collapsible shelter is for life non merely for a festival where visitants are encouraged to purchase a collapsible shelter, which they will utilize even after the event and therefore collapsible shelters wont be left behind. However this is non plenty as there are still visitants who dont fuss in taking their collap sible shelters and this is why T in the park has The International Relief Trust roll uping quality abandoned collapsible shelters. Tomorrowland offers an option to encampment by supplying miniscule lockable suites but harmonizing to wikifestivals.com, some suites can be up to 21,000. These should be offered at a cheaper monetary value in order to promote visitants to utilize them and hence being environmentally sustainable. Organizers should happen better ways at doing their campgrounds more sustainable by supplying more information and educating visitants on the effects that arise.3.2 Taxes and Local economic systemIn mega events such as The Olympic Games and The World Cup it is in the governments involvement to be environmentally sustainable when be aftering events as states may be burdened with the wake these events leave on the state. When building immense substructure for such events such as stadia these can go bloodless elephants and locals have to pay more revenue enhanceme nts for their care. Korea-Japan World Cup in 2002 exhausted one million millions of dollars in building and refurbishing of bowl, which are now black-and-blue elephants and environmental loads. These become besides immense economic loads on locals who are paying excess 1000000s annually in revenue enhancement for their care. A better hazard and environmental appraisal and farther planning should hold resulted in a better rating of future usage of these bowl which is what Russia are be aftering to make for the 2018 games as Alexey Sorokin, the CEO of the Russia 2018 LOC stated But the success of the World Cup in Russia will depend non merely on how dear it is organised, but besides on how efficaciously the installations are used after the tournament.

Slimaxes or anticlimaxes in Enduring Love Essay

Another climax begins at the end of chapter 21 with a phone call between Jed and Joe Im putting her on, OK? Are you there? Joe? Are you there? Here McEwan uses juxtaposition of beginning an moment within the formal closure of a chapter. The effect of this adds suspense to the novel as a whole as it wills the reader to follow the chain of events. Also, the scared dialogue of Are you there? Joe? Are you there? heightens the climax by leaving it unresolved. McEwan continually references sweat in chapter 22 showing the physical work in each of the characters sweat was beading on his forehead illustrates the tension between Jed, Joe and Clarissa. Each reference to sweat made by McEwan reveals a pernicious increase in the volume, beginning with beading ending with rolling off Parry. This is reflective of the tension of the climax as it builds up.Clarissa is given a share in this chapter which shows how frightened she is but also reveals more about Joes character. The novel is told thr ough the narrative perspective of Joe Rose, therefore Clarissas dialogue is below his control meaning that Joe is in full control of her voice and is able to dictate how the reader perceives her. Her small voice reveals that Joe sees her in as vulnerable. This portrays to the reader, Clarissa as a victim of both the situation and the narrative, creating sympathy for her within the climax. This is significant becauseit adds an alternate perspective to the novel. The sympathy created here is later emphasised in chapter 23 in which Clarissa finally gets an undistorted voice.McEwan continually uses sense in chapter22 which makes the scene more dramatic adding to the climax and is implies a rush of adrenaline which heightens the senses.The description she was still, but ripples of heft and tendon at the base of her neck suggested that she was coiled I could hear my heart under my shirt adds to the tension of the chapter which makes this particular climax significant as it creates a vi vid image for the reader. Most of McEwans description revolves around tension, of the situation, of muscles this subsequently builds tension within the reader, adding to the anticipation of the climax. As the novel draws to a close,McEwan finally clears the mystery of Jed Parrys nature. This is significant to the climax as it dramatically changes the readersperspective on Jed, and perhaps the entirety of the novel. In Chapter 22, Jed is revealed to be a pure soul, not at all a treat. All Jed wants is forgiveness fromJoe please forgive me, Joe, for what I did yesterday which in a way acts as an bathos as the novel builds Jed up to be a harmful man with a vendetta,yet in actuality, all he wants is forgiveness. Joe is insistent on playing the admirer, but is portrayed as being petrified of using a gun. Clarissa doesnt seem to be pleased that Joe wanted to play the hero, nor does she see him as a hero which dulls the poignancy of the climax. Also Joeseems to be playing the anti-hero a nd Jed, the anti-terrorist. This is significant to the novel as it is juxtaposed to the stereotypical thriller/romancewhich the novelpartially aims towards.

Small Business, Innovation, and Public Policy in the Information Technology Industry

New firms tolerate played a major(ip) role in fomenting variation in culture applied science. A red-hot study by Greenwood and Jovanovic 1999 support peerless dramatic illustproportionn of these trends. These authors show that a group of IT upstartsfirms specializing in computer and communications technologies that went usual later 1968now account for oer 4% of the total U. S. equity trade jacketization. spell virtually of this ingathering has come at the write off of incumbent teaching engine room firms, the impertinently market jimmy and technological spillovers created by these newly businesses get along to be substantial.The role of new firms in the information technology industries has rekind lead interest in the relationship among firm characteristics and existence. Are small businesses more(prenominal) than forward- sprightlinessing in general? Are proud-technology start-ups particularly grand? If the answer to either of these questions is yes, how should policymakers seek to encourage these firms? The relationship amid creative activity and firm characteristics has been one of the most researched topics in the empirical industrial organization literary works.To summarize these discussions and be sick several(prenominal) implications for policymakers in a few pages is thus a daunting challenge Consequently, this essay takes a quite selective approach to these issues. First, I very briefly summarize the academic books on the relationship between firm size and innovation. This work suggests that there appears to be a very wan relationship between firm size, the tendency to undertake R&D, and the effectiveness of research spending. olive-sized businesses, in aggregate, do not appear to be particularly research-intensive or innovative.I consequently circle to examining one subset of small businesses that do appear to excel at innovation judge big(p)-backed start-ups. I bring bulge out some of the jeopardize-bac ked firms contri only ifions. I also discuss why the success of much(prenominal) firms is not accidental. In particular, I highlight the trace problems that the support of small innovative companies pose, as well as some of the key mechanisms that take a chance locateors rent to guide the innovation function. It is not surprising, then, that opine capital investments be concentrated in information technology industries, and that they appear to pur innovation. Finally, I consider one set of policy issues related to small firms and innovation. In particular, I discuss some recent changes in the intellectual property shield strategy that appear to favor larger firms. I then argue that this whitethorn be an ara that would reward increase attention by policy-makers interested in helping innovative small businesses in information technology and some former(a) high-technology industries. 1. Small Business and Innovation A substantial but largely inconclusive literature examin es the relationship between firm size and innovation.These studies have been handicapped by the backbreakingy of measuring innovative inputs and outputs, as well as the challenges of creating a sample that is free of selection biases and other estimation problems. speckle a detailed review of this literature is beyond the scope of this piece, the interested reader can turn to surveys by Baldwin and Scott 1987 and Cohen and Levin 1989. Much of the work in this literature has sought to relate measures of innovative discoverieswhether R&D expenditures, unmixeds, inventions, or other measuresto firm size.Initial studies were undertaken using the largest manufacturing firms more recent works have engaged larger samples and more disaggregated data (e. g. , studies employing data on firms specific lines of business). Despite the improved methodology of recent studies, the results have remained inconclusive even when a significant relationship between firm size and innovation has been f ound, it has had little economic significance. For instance, Cohen, Levin, and Mowery 1987 concluded that a doubling of firm size only increase the ratio of R&D to sales by 0. 2%.One of the relatively few empirical regularities uphill from studies of technological innovation is the critical role played by small firms and new entrants in accepted industries. The role of entrantstypically de novo start-upsin emerging industries was highlighted, for instance, in the pioneering case study-based research of Jewkes, Sawers, and Stillerman 1958. Acs and Audretsch 1988 examined this question more systematically. They put down that the contribution of small firms to innovation was a function of industry conditions the contribution was greatest in new industries which were relatively unconcentrated.These findings suggested that entrepreneurs and small firms often played a key role in observing where new technologies could be applied to meet customer needs, and rapidly introducing products. These patterns are also predicted in several models of technological competition, more of which were reviewed in Reinganum 1989, as well in several analyses in the organizational behavior literature several were discussed in Henderson, 1993. The 1990s have seen several dramatic illustrations of these patterns. Two potentially revolutionary areas of technological innovationbiotechnology and the meshworkwere pioneered by smaller entrants.Neither established drug companies nor mainframe computer manufacturers were pioneers in developing these technologies. By and large, small firms did not invent the key genetic engineering techniques or Internet protocols. Rather, the bulk of the enabling technologies were developed with Federal funds at academic institutions and research laboratories. It was the small entrants, however, who were the initiative to seize upon the commercial opportunities. 2. post detonating device and Innovation One set of small firms, however, appear to have h ad a disproportionate effect on innovation those backed by venture capitalists. Venture capital can be defined as equity or equity-linked investments in young, privately held companies, where the investor is a financial intermediary is typically actively as a director, advisor or even manager of the firm. ) part venture capitalists fund only a few hundred of the nearly one million businesses begun in the United States each year, these firms have a disproportionate fix on technological innovation. This claim is back up by a variety of evidence. One measure, while crude, is yieldd by the firms which graduate to the commonplace marketplace.In the yesteryear two decades, intimately one-third of the companies going public (weighted by value) have been backed by venture investors. A second way to assess these claims is to examine which firms have been funded. Venture capitalists, while contributing a relatively modest share of the total finance, provided critical early capital an d guidance to many of the new firms in such emerging industries as biotechnology, computer networking, and the Internet. In some cases, these new firmsutilizing the capital, expertise, and contacts provided by their venture capital investorsestablished themselves as market lapseers.In other instances, they were acquired by larger corporations, or entered into licensing arrangements with such concerns. Consider, for instance, the biotechnology industry. Venture capitalists provided only a small fraction of the external financing raised in the industry, and only 450 out of 1500 firms have received venture financing through 1995. These venture-backed firms, however, accounted for over 85% of the clears awarded and drugs clear for marketing. Similarly, venture capitalists have aggressively backed firms in information technology industries, which accounted for 60% of all venture disbursements in 1998.These have included many of the most successful firms in the industry, including Amaz on. com, Cisco Systems, Microsoft, Intel, and Yahoo. A utmost way to assess the impact of the venture industry is to consider the impact of venture backed firms. check out results suggest that these investments have powerful impacts. For instance, a mid-1996 survey by the venture organization Kleiner, Perkins, Caufield, and Byers found that the firms that the federation had financed since its inception in 1971 had created 131,000 jobs, generated $44 billion in annual revenues, and had $84 billion in market capitalization Peltz, 1996.While Kleiner, Perkins is one of the most successful venture capital groups, the results are suggestive of the impact of the industry. More systematically, Kortum and Lerner 1998 examining the influence of venture capital on unmixeded inventions in the United States across xx industries over three decades. They track concerns about causality in several ways, including exploiting a 1979 policy vary that spurred venture capital fundraising. They fin d that the amount of venture capital activity in an industry importantly increases its rate of discernibleing.While the ratio of venture capital to R&D has averaged less than 3% in recent years, the estimates suggest that venture capital accounts for about 15% of industrial innovations. They address concerns that these results are an artefact of the use of open counts by demonstrating similar patterns when other measures of innovation are used in a sample of 530 venture-backed and non-venture-backed firms. Lending particular relevance to an examination of these firms is the tremendous boom in the U. S. venture capital industry in recent years.The pool of venture partnerships has grown ten-fold, from under $4 billion in 1978 to about $75 billion at the end of 1998. Venture capitals recent harvest-time has outstripped that of almost every class of financial product. It is worth underscoring that the tremendous success of venture-backed firms has not happened by accident. The intera ctions between venture capitalists and the entrepreneurs that they finance are often complex. They can be understood, however, as a response to the challenges that the financing of emerging growth companies pose.Entrepreneurs rarely have the capital to see their ideas to fruition and must rely on immaterial financiers. Meanwhile, those who control capitalfor instance, pension fund trustees and university overseersare unlikely to have the time or expertise to invest directly in young or restructuring firms. Some entrepreneurs might turn to other financing sources, such as bank loans or the issuance of public stock, to meet their needs. But because of tetrad key factors, some of the most potentially profitable and exciting firms would be unable to access financing if venture capital did not exist.The first factor, uncertainty, is a measure of the array of potential outcomes for a guild or project. The wider the dispersion of potential outcomes, the greater the uncertainty. By their very spirit, young companies are associated with significant levels of uncertainty. hesitation surrounds whether the research program or new product allow for succeed. The response of firms rivals whitethorn also be uncertain. High uncertainty means that investors and entrepreneurs cannot confidently predict what the company will look like in the future tense.Uncertainty affects the willingness of investors to contribute capital, the desire of suppliers to extend credit, and the decisions of a firms managers. If managers are averse to taking risks, it whitethorn be difficult to induce them to make the right decisions. Conversely, if entrepreneurs are overoptimistic, then investors want to curtail miscellaneous actions. Uncertainty also affects the timing of investment. Should an investor contribute all the capital at the beginning, or should he stage the investment through time? Investors need to know how information-gathering activities can address these concerns and when th ey should be undertaken.The second factor, asymmetric information (or information disparities), is distinct from uncertainty. Because of his day-to-day involvement with the firm, an entrepreneur knows more about his companys prospects than investors, suppliers, or strategic partners. Various problems develop in settings where asymmetric information is prevalent. For instance, the entrepreneur may take detrimental actions that investors cannot observe perhaps undertaking a riskier strategy than ab initio suggested or not working as hard as the investor expects.The entrepreneur might also invest in projects that build up his reputation at the investors expense. Asymmetric information can also lead to selection problems. The entrepreneur may exploit the fact that he knows more about the project or his abilities than investors do. Investors may find it difficult to distinguish between competent entrepreneurs and incompetent ones. Without the ability to screen out unacceptable projects and entrepreneurs, investors are unable to make efficient and appropriate decisions. The third factor affecting a firms corporate and financial strategy is the disposition of its assets.Firms that have tangible assetse. g. , machines, buildings, land, or corporeal inventorymay find financing easier to master or may be able to obtain more favorable terms. The ability to abscond with the firms source of value is more difficult when it relies on physical assets. When the most important assets are intangible, such as trade secrets, raising outside financing from traditional sources may be more challenging. Market conditions also play a key role in determining the difficulty of financing firms. Both the capital and product markets may be subject to substantial variations.The supply of capital from public investors and the price at which this capital is available may vary dramatically. These changes may be a response to regulatory edicts or shifts in investors perceptions of future pro fitability. Similarly, the nature of product markets may vary dramatically, whether payable to shifts in the intensity of competition with rivals or in the nature of the customers. If there is exceedingly intense competition or a great deal of uncertainty about the size of the potential market, firms may find it very difficult to raise capital from traditional sources.Venture capitalists have a variety of mechanisms at their disposal to address these changing factors. They will invest in stages, often at increasing valuations. Each refinancing is tied to a re-evaluation of the company and its prospects. In these financings, they will employ complex financing mechanisms, often hybrid securities like convertible security preferred equity or convertible debt. These financial structures can potentially screen out overconfident or under-qualified entrepreneurs and reduce the venture capitalists risks.They will also shift the mixture of investors from whom a firm acquires capital. Each sourceprivate equity investors, corporations, and the public marketsmay be appropriate for a firm at different points in its life. Venture capitalists provide not only introductions to these other sources of capital but certificationa stamp of approval that addresses the concerns of other investors. Finally, once the investment is do, they monitor and work with the entrepreneurs to ensure that the right operational and strategic decisions are made and implemented. 3.Innovation, Small Business, and Public Policy If small firmsor even some subset of small firmsare performing an important role in the innovation process, one policy goal should be to address threats to their future development. This is particularly true of threats that have been created by misguided government policies, however good the intentions of their designers. The area that I believe deserves particular attention relates to the key mechanism for protecting intellectual property, namely tangibles. The U. S. cons picuous system has under gone(p) a profound shift over the past fifteen years.The strength of discernible protection has been dramatically bolstered, and both large and small firms are devoting considerably more effort to seeking patent protection and takeing their patents in the courts. Many in the patent communityU. S. procure and Trademark Office officials, the patent bar, and corporate patent staffhave welcomed these changes. But viewed more broadly, the reforms of the patent system and the consequent growth of patent litigation have created a substantial innovation tax that afflicts some of Americas most important and creative small firms.Almost all formal disputes involving issued patents are tried in the Federal juridical system. The sign litigation must be undertaken in a territorial dominion court. Prior to 1982, appeals of patent cases were comprehend in the appellate courts of the various circuits. These differed considerably in their interpretation of patent law. Because few appeals of patent cases were perceive by the Supreme Court, substantial differences persisted, leading to widespread forum shopping by litigants. In 1982, the U. S. coition established a centralized appellate court for patent cases, the Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit (CAFC). As Robert Merges 1992 observes, While the CAFC was ostensibly formed strictly to unify patent doctrine, it was no doubt hoped by some (and expected by others) that the new court would make subtle alterations in the doctrinal fabric, with an eye to enhancing the patent system. To judge by results, that is exactly what happened. The CAFCs rulings have been more pro-patent than the previous courts.For instance, the circuit courts had affirmed 62% of district court findings of patent infringement in the three decades prior to the creation of the CAFC, while the CAFC in its first eight years affirmed 90% of such decisions Koenig, 1980 Harmon, 1991. The strengthening of patent law has not gone u nnoticed by corporations. Over the past decade, patents awarded to U. S. corporations have increased by 50%. Furthermore, the willingness of firms to litigate patents has increased considerably. The number of patent suits instituted in the Federal courts has increased from 795 in 1981 to 1553 in 1993 adversarial proceedings within the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office have increased from 246 in 1980 to 684 in 1992 Administrative Office, various years U. S. Department of Commerce, various years. My recent analysis of litigation by firms based in Middlesex County, Massachusetts suggests that six intellectual property-related suits are turn ond for every one hundred patent awards to corporations. These suits lead to significant expenditures by firms. Based on historic costs, I estimate that patent litigation begun in 1991 will lead to total legal expenditures (in 1991 dollars) of over $1 billion, a substantial amount relative to the $3. billion spent by U. S. firms on underlying resea rch in 1991. These findings are summarized in Lerner, 1995. Litigation also leads to substantial indirect costs. The discovery process is likely to require the alleged infringer to produce extensive documentation, time-consuming depositions from employees, and may generate unfavorable publicity. Its officers and directors may also be held individually liable. As firms have realized the value of their patent positions, they have begun reviewing their stockpiles of issued patents. some(prenominal) companies, including Texas Instruments, Intel, Wang Laboratories, and Digital Equipment, have established groups that approach rivals to demand royalties on old patent awards. In many cases, they have been successful in extracting license agreements and/or past royalties. For instance, Texas Instruments is estimated to have netted $257 million in 1991 from patent licenses and settlements resulting from their general counsels aggressive enforcement policy Rosen, 1992. Particularly striking, practitioner accounts suggest, has been the growth of litigationand threats of litigationbetween large and small firms.This trend is disturbing. While litigation is clearly a necessary mechanism to defend property rights, the proliferation of such suits may be leading to transfers of financial resources from some of the youngest and most innovative firms to more established, better capitalized concerns. Even if the target firm feels that it does not infringe, it may choose to settle rather than fight. It either may be unable to raise the capital to finance a protracted court battle, or else may believe that the publicity associated with the litigation will depress the valuation of its equity.In addition, these small firms may reduce or alter their investment in R. For instance, a 1990 survey of 376 firms found that the time and expense of intellectual property litigation was a major factor in the decision to pursue an innovation for almost twice as many firms with under 500 employee s than for larger businesses Koen, 1990. These claims are also back up by my study 1995 of the patenting behavior of new biotechnology firms that have different litigation costs.I showed that firms with high litigation costs are less likely to patent in subclasses with many other awards, particularly those of firms with low litigation costs. These effects have been particularly pernicious in emerging industries. Chronically strained for resources, USPTO officials are unlikely to assign many patent examiners to emerging technologies in advance of a beckon of applications. As patent applications begin flowing in, the USPTO often finds the retention of the few examiners skilled in the new technologies difficult. Companies are likely to hire away all but the least able examiners.These examiners are rich not only for their knowledge of the USPTO examination procedure in the new technology, but also for their sagaciousness of what other patent applications are in process but not awa rded. (U. S. patent applications are held undercover until time of award. ) Many of the examinations in emerging technologies are as a result performed under hard time forces by inexperienced examiners. Consequently, awards of patents in several critical new technologies have been delayed and super inconsistent. These ambiguities have created ample opportunities for firms that seek to aggressively litigate their patent awards.The clearest examples of this problem are the biotechnology and software industries. In the latter industry, examples abound where inexperienced examiners have granted patents on technologies that were widely diffused but not previously patented see, for instance, the many examples chronicled in Aharonian, 1999. It might be asked why policy-makers have not addressed the deleterious effects of patent policy changes. The difficulties that Federal officials have faced in reforming the patent system are perhaps best illustrated by the efforts to simplify one o f the most arcane aspects of our patent system, the first-to-invent policy.With the exception of the Philippines and Jordan, all other nations award patents to firms that are the first to file for patent protection. The U. S. , however, has clung to the first-to-invent system. In the U. S. , a patent will be awarded to the party who can demonstrate (through laboratory notebooks and other evidence) that he was the initial discoverer of a new invention, even if he did not file for patent protection until after others did (within certain limits).A frequently invoked argument for the first-to-invent system is that this provides protection for small inventors, who may take weeklong to translate a discovery into a completed patent application. While this argument is initially compelling, the verity is quite different. Disputes over priority of invention are resolved through a proceeding forward the USPTOs Board of Patent Appeals and Interferences known as an interference. The Board wil l hold a hearing to do which inventor first made the discovery.The interference process has been characterized as an archaic procedure, replete with traps for the unwary Calvert, 1980. These interferences pine away a considerable amount of resources the adjudication of the average interference is estimated to cost over one hundred guanine dollars Kingston, 1992. Yet in recent years, in only about 55 cases annually has the party that was second-to-file been dogged to have been the first-to-invent Calvert and Sofocleous, 1992. Thus, the U. S. persists in this complex, costly, and idiosyncratic system in order to reverse the priority of 0. 3% of the patent applications filed each year. But this system has proved very resistant to change. At least since 1967, proposals have been unsuccessfully offered to shift the U. S. to a first-to-file system. As recently as January 1994, USPTO Commissioner Bruce Lehman was forced to withdraw such a proposal. While the voices raised in protest ov er his initiativeas those opposing earlier reform attemptswere led by advocates for small inventors, it is difficult not to conclude that the greatest beneficiary from the first-to-file system is the small subset of the patent bar that specializes in interference law.It may be thought puzzling that independent inventors, who are broadly speaking unable to afford costly litigation, have been so active in supporting the retention of first-to-invest. A frequently voiced complaint is that small inventors take longer to prepare patent applications, and hence would escape out to better-financed rivals, in a first-to-file world. This argument appears to be specious for several reasons. First, economically important discoveries are typically the subject of patent filings in a number of countries. Thus, there is already an enormous pressure to file quickly.Second, the recent reforms of the U. S. system have created a new provisional patent application, which is much simpler to file than a full-fledged application. Finally, as former Commissioner Lehman notes, many most vocal independent inventors opposing patent reform are weekend hobbyists . . . rather than representatives of knowledge-based industries Chartrand, 1995. As this case study suggests, the failure of Federal reform efforts is due to several factors. First, the issues are complex, and sometimes difficult to understand.Simplistic claims frequently cloud these discussions. For instance, because firms use patents to protect innovations, it is frequently argued that a stronger patent system will lead to more innovation. Second, the people with the greatest economic military post in retaining a litigious and complex patent systemthe patent barhave turn up to be a very powerful lobby. The efforts of the highly specialized interference bar to retain first to invent is a prime example. Finally, the top executives of technology-intensive firms have not mounted an effective campaign somewhat these issues.The re ason may be that the companies who are most adversely affected are small, capital-constrained firms who do not have time for major lobbying efforts. Thus, an important policy concern is that we avoid taking steps in the name of increasing competitiveness that actually interfere with the workings of innovative small businesses. The 1982 reform of the patent litigation process appears to have had exactly this sort of unintended consequence. References Zoltan J. Acs and David B. Audretsch, Innovation in Large and Small Firms An Empirical Analysis, American stinting Review, 78 (1988), pp. 78-690. Administrative Office of the United States Courts, Annual Report of the Director, upper-case letter U. S. Government Printing Office, various years. Gregory Aharonian, Internet Patent News Service, http//metalab. unc. edu/patents/ipnsinfo. html, 1999. William L. Baldwin and John T. Scott, Market Structure and scientific Change, Chur, Switzerland Harwood Academic Publishers, 1987. Ian A. Calve rt, An Overview of Interference Practice, diary of the Patent Office Society, 62 (1980), pp. 290-308. Ian A.Calvert and Michael Sofocleous, Interference Statistics for Fiscal Years 1989 to 1991, journal of the Patent and Trademark Office Society, 74 (1992), pp. 822-826. Sabra Chartrand, Facing High-Tech Issues, New Patents Chief in Reinventing a Staid Agency, New York Times, July 14, 1995, p. 17. Michael P. Chu, An Antitrust Solution to the New Wave of Predatory Patent Infringement Litigation, William and bloody shame equity Review, 33 (1992), pp. 1341-68. Wesley M. Cohen and Richard C. Levin, Empirical Studies of Innovation and Market Structure, in Richard Schmalensee and Robert D.Willig, editors, Handbook of Industrial Organization, New York North-Holland, 1989, volume II, chapter 18. Wesley M. Cohen, Richard C. Levin, and David C. Mowery, Firm Size and R&D Intensity A Re-Examination, Journal of Industrial Economics, 35 (1987), pp. 543-563. capital of Minnesota A. Gompers and ride Lerner, The Venture Capital Cycle, Cambridge MIT Press, 1999. Jeremy Greenwood and Boyan Jovanovic, The IT Revolution and the Stock Market, American Economic Review Papers and Proceedings, 89 (1999) forthcoming. Robert L. Harmon, Patents and the Federal Circuit, Washington Bureau of National Affairs, 1991.Rebecca Henderson, Underinvestment and Incompetence as Responses to Radical Innovation Evidence from the Photolithographic alliance Equipment Industry, Rand Journal of Economics, 24 (1993), pp. 248-270. Michael C. Jensen, Presidential Address The Modern Industrial Revolution, Exit, and the Failure of Internal Control Systems, Journal of Finance, 48 (1993), pp. 831-880. John Jewkes, David Sawers, and Richard Stillerman, The Sources of Invention, London St. Martins Press, 1958. William Kingston, Is the United States Right about First-to-Invent? , European Intellectual Property Review, 7 (1992), pp. 23-226. Mary S. Koen, Survey of Small Business Use of Intellectual Property Prot ection Report of a Survey Conducted by MO-SCI Corporation for the Small Business Administration, Rolla, Missouri MO-SCI Corp. , 1990. Gloria K. Koenig, Patent Invalidity A statistical and Substantive Analysis, New York Clark Boardman, 1980. Samuel Kortum and Josh Lerner, Does Venture Capital Spur Innovation? , National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper No. 6846, 1998. Josh Lerner, Patenting in the Shadow of Competitors, Journal of Law and Economics, 38 (1995), pp. 63-595. Josh Lerner, Small Businesses, Innovation, and Public Policy, in Zoltan Acs, editor, Are Small Firms Important? , New York Kluwer Academic Publishing, 1999, forthcoming. Josh Lerner and Robert Merges, The Control of Strategic Alliances An Empirical Analysis of Biotechnology Collaborations, Journal of Industrial Economics (Special Issue on Inside the Pin Factory Empirical Studies Augmented by Manager Interviews. ), 46 (1998), pp. 125-156. Robert P. Merges, Patent Law and Policy, Charlottesville Michie Compan y, 1992.National Venture Capital Association, 1999 National Venture Capital Association Yearbook, Arlington, Virginia National Venture Capital Association, 1999. Michael Peltz, High Techs Premier Venture Capitalist, Institutional Investor, 30 (June 1996), pp. 89-98. Jennifer R. Reinganum, The Timing of Innovation Research, maturement and Diffusion, in Richard Schmalensee and Robert D. Willig, editors, Handbook of Industrial Organization, New York North-Holland, 1989, volume I, chapter 14. Miriam Rosen, Texas Instruments $250 Million-a-Year Profit Center, American Lawyer, 14 (March 1992), pp. 56-63.